Schizophrenia

New Findings

Schizophrenia affects about 1 per cent of the United States population; it is quite a complex disorder to understand and diagnose.  The cause of Schizophrenia is still unknown, but it is theorized that genes may play a big role in the development of this psychological disorder.  It is difficult to diagnose because of the interrelation with other psychological disorders such as Bipolar.  Some symptoms include auditory hallucinations, disturbed thought processes, and difficulty identifying real from unreal. 
New research suggests "impairments in the early stages of sensory information processing are associated with a constellation of abnormalities in schizophrenia patients". This research was conducted by Gregory Light, an associate professor of psychiatry at University of California San Diego,and consisted of recording patterns of electrical activity of  410 schizophrenia patients.  he used 247 non psychiatric subjects to compare with the schizophrenia patients.  His findings showed reduced activity of certain areas of the medial frontal lobe in schizophrenia patients when exposed to changes in auditory tones.  According to the research findings, this suggests that there may be relationship between impairments in sensory information processing and schizophrenia. This new research may be groundbreaking in the search for  the cause of schizophrenia.  May it be possible to detect this impairment and be able to somehow "prevent" the development of this disorder?
Take a look at this video of Heather, a schizophrenia patient:

Source:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/11/121130222143.htm

Mood Disorders

Depression in the workplace

Imagine being depressed and not being able to tell people how you really feel.  Now imagine how it is to go to work everyday and dealing with depression.  Depression is defined as a mood disorder that affects a person's daily life for a prolonged period of time.  Depression in the workplace is more common than actually reported.  the main reason employees refuse to notify their employer about their issue with depression is because of the stigma surrounding depression.  Some employees may feel they will be jeopardizing their positions within a company or other employees may view them and treat them differently.  According to  the Americans with Disabilities Act, employers with 15 or more employees are prevented from discriminating against people who may suffer from serious health problems.  Another concern for employers is whether health insurance will cover treatment for depression.  Due to the National Health Care Legislation passed in 2009, insurance companies will not be able to deny coverage for depression beginning in 2014. 

sources:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001941/

Stress and Emotions

Stress and Emotional Eating

Although there may be many factors linked to Emotional Eating, research has linked stress as a factor that increases emotional eating.  What is emotional eating?  According to about.com, "emotional eating is characterized by repeatedly eating in response to feelings rather than in response to hunger to gain physical nourishment".  So how exactly is stress linked to this type of binge eating?
Let's focus on the physiological response stress has on the human body; stress increases the levels of cortisol which is commonly referred as the "stress hormone".  This hormone leads to an increase of craving for salty and sweet foods.  This type of foods will cause weight gain.  Aside from the cravings, stress usually creates a need for social support for most people.  Usually when searching for that support, most people seem to "express their feelings" over a nice meal with a friend.  This social eating may also contribute to weight gain because the food choices are usually not healthy choices.   Another form of emotional eating is caused by nervousness or feeling of anxiousness.  A lot of people bite their nails or grind their teeth during times of stress, and some go straight to eating.   Emotional eating may also be a result for reducing uncomfortable emotions.  When a problem arises, some people may eat instead of trying to communicate effectivley  It serves as a form of coping with an issue without actually addressing the issues.  Although eating during stressful times may have negative impacts, some food choices may actually relieve stress.  Below is a video that introduces four foods that may actually decrease stress levels.

Sleep

Sleepwalking: Why does it happen??

Research has not been able to identify the cause of sleepwalking, medically known as somnambulism.  According to the National Sleep Foundation, fifteen percent of the general population engage in sleepwalking.  Although it is more common in children, sleepwalking is still a condition found in adults and elderly. There is no specific treatment for sleepwalking.
 
Sleepwalking is described as walking, eating, dressing and reportedly even driving without any recollection of the events after waking up. During a sleepwalking episode, a person may have their eyes wide open, have a blank facial expression or  may speak incoherently  It can be quite dangerous because a person who is engaging in sleepwalking may hurt themselves by falling, hitting, or walking into others.  There have been cases of people walking out of their homes in the middle of the night and wandering off. The video below describes this condition in children and some of the triggers for sleepwalking.

According to the video, research suggests that fatigue and sleep deprivation  may be some of the triggers of sleepwalking in children. 

Have you ever woken up and someone tells you that you were walking while being asleep?  If you have feel free to share your experience..

Sex

Gender Identity Disorder: Is it a psychological disorder?

When you are born, you are identified as either a female or male; this is your biological sex.  Gender identity is the way you identify yourself.  According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), Gender Identity Disorder (GID) is the persistent desire to be the opposite sex, persistent discomfort of one's sex and there has to be evidence of significant distress in social, occupational and other important areas.   Many argue that Gender Identity Disorder is labeling transgender as mentally ill.  In an article published by advocate.com, it is stated that in the new edition of the DSM, DSM-V, this disorder will be changed to Gender Dysphoria.  The video below gives an introduction to the debate on whether GID is an illness.

As you can see, people who identify themselves as the opposite sex feel as if they are being forced to believe they are psychologically ill.  ABC published an article explaining the features of GID in children, adolescents and adults.  GID can be diagnosed as early as in childhood.  The main observation in children is the toy preference and gender roles of the opposite sex during play time.  Early research suggests that gender identification is affected by  environmental factors, but recent research suggests that gender identity might be influenced by prenatal hormones. Therefore, if gender identity does not match biological sex, is it correct to label it as a disorder?

Pain, Olfaction, Pheromones, and Synaesthesia

Pheromones: Do they exist in humans?

The word "pheromone" was first introduced by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher  in 1959. Pheromones are chemicals that are released by an animal and affect the behavior of other members of the same species.  A very common example includes  when a female dog is "in heat" she attracts male dogs.  This attraction is important in this species for reproductive purposes; the existence and importance of pheromones in humans has been examined since the identification of the pheromone bombykol in silk moths.  So how are pheromones important to human beings?
Most of the research and identification of human pheromones are related to opposite sex attraction and sexual activity.
There are two varieties of pheromones that have been identified: releaser and primer pheromones.  Releaser pheromones cause an immediate behavior reaction; primer pheromones cause long-time physiological changes.
In mammals, the  vomeronasal organ (VNO) is a set of receptors that respond to pheromones and is used to detect pheromones.  In humans, the VNO is extremely small and has no receptors.  There has been no evidence of humans displaying any releaser pheromones, but the existence of primer pheromones are what researchers have suggested.  A specific study of the effect of the smell of women's sweat suggests that during the time of ovulation, men's testosterone secretion increases (Miller & Maner, 2010).  Another study relates to the timing of women's menstrual cycle and the synchronization of women who spend a lot of time together.  The study's findings concluded that women who spend a lot of time together seem to have synchronized menstrual cycles and it suggests that pheromones are responsible for the synchronization ( McClintock, 1971; Weller, Weller, Koresh-Kamin, & Ben-Shoshan, 1999; Weller, Weller & Roizman, 1999). The possibility of primer pheromones in humans has provided a marketing tool for companies of products to increase sexual attractiveness for men and women.  Check out this video on an experiment conducted by ABC 20/20:

Learning, Memory and Amnesia

Forget Me Not....

Have you ever walked into a parking lot and felt clueless about where you parked?  Why is it that we forget things? Let's examine the memory system!

In the video above, short-term and long-term memory are briefly described, but the memory system is not a simple process.  

Early research in memory formation led to the misconception that memories are "temporarily" stored as short-term memory and then consolidated into long-term memories.  Advanced research in cognitive psychology has proven that the consolidation process differs.  The memory system is divided into three functions; sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.  Sensory memory retains what a person hears or sees; short-term memory is determined by selective attention of the information acquired through the visual and auditory senses; long-term memory is a relatively permanent storage of information and information is stored based on the meaning and importance of the information.

So how does this memory formation process explain why we forget simple things such as where you parked or where you left your keys?

Elizabeth Loftus, a well-known memory researcher, has identified four reasons why we forget: retrieval failure, interference, failure to store and motivated forgetting.

• Retrieval failure is basically being unable to retrieve a memory.  For example, imagine you were carrying a bag with you while walking out the door.  Then, while sitting inside your car, you realize the bag you were holding was nowhere to be found.  You step our of your car and just cannot seem to know where you left the bag.  After a couple of minutes of intense search, you realize you "forgot" you had stepped into your room and had place your bag on your bed.  Sure enough, you walk into your room and alas, there is the bag!  You just completely forgot!

• Interference suggests that new memories compete with previous memories.  This mainly occurs when information of new memory is fairly similar to previously stored information.

• Failure to store a memory is basically the notion that a memory NEVER made it into long-term memory.

• And, motivated forgetting suggests that we may actively work to forget certain events, information, or experiences.  This is particularly notable after a traumatic or disturbing event or experience.

Although these four reasons may not answer the question "Why we forget things?", it is important to understand the memory system is quite complex.

Brain Lateralization

Broca's Aphasia

The video above is a demonstration of a patient with damage in the Broca's area of the brain. As you can see, it is extremely difficult and even almost impossible for this patient to "speak his mind".

Language is an essential and complex tool for communication among human beings.  Imagine how frustrating and difficult it would be to  not be able to say what you are thinking???  How difficult it would be to express your ideas??

The Broca's area contains motor neurons and is located in the frontal part of the left hemisphere.  This area is associated with the production of language. In 1861, Paul Broca, a french surgeon, identified the Broca's area and found that damage to this small area of the brain impairs language production.

Broca's Aphasia is characterized as a consequence of injury to the brain caused mostly  by a stroke.  Other causes come from head trauma, brain tumors, or infection.This condition limits speech output, vocabulary access, and writing.
Affected people omit prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, helping verbs, quantifiers, tenses and number endings. People with Broca's Aphasia rely solely on nouns and verbs to communicate.  This condition is also known as Nonfluent Aphasia because of the halting and effortful quality of speech.  It is important to know that damage to the Broca's area does not impair intelligence and it can affect people of all ages.  According to the National Aphasia Association, over 1,000,000 Americans live with aphasia every day.

Brain Anatomy, Development, and Plasticity

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
 100% PREVENTABLE!!!

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, is a severe birth defect caused by heavy alcohol use during pregnancy or breastfeeding.  If a pregnant woman drinks alcohol during her pregnancy, the alcohol crosses the placental barrier and affects the highly vulnerable infant brain. Alcohol has an effect on the levels of glutamate by suppressing its release and enhancing GABA activity.   According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in the United States .2 to 1.5 for every live births are FAS cases.  Children that are born with FAS have distinctive facial features (e.g. small head, narrow eye openings, short upturned nose),  low birth weight, slow growth, central nervous system abnormalities, intellectual disabilities, and behavioral and cognitive problems. 
It is important for pregnant women to be aware of the risks of drinking alcohol during pregnancy.  Unfortunately, some women may not be aware of the risks of alcohol consumption during pregnancy.  Information about FAS can be found at the N.O.F.A.S website. 

In the case of children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, should the mother be charged with abuse to the child?  If the mother has complete control of what she consumes during her pregnancy, is it possible that she purposely caused the damage to her unborn child and has condemned the child with both physical and mental disabilities for life?

Synapses

Marijuana: Should it be legalized?

Marijuana is the most commonly abused illicit drug; it is derived from the Cannabis plant.  According to a government survey, about 25 million Americans have smoked marijuana within a time span of 12 months.  Its main active chemical is tetrahydrocannabanol, known as THC and other cannabinoids.  

                                                         
So how exactly does marijuana affect the brain? 
Once marijuana is inhaled or ingested, the active THC enters the blood stream and is carried to the brain. The brain contains Cannabinoid receptors which are located on the presynaptic neurons; THC (the active chemical in Cannabis plant) attaches to the cannabinoid receptors.  The chemicals decrease excitatory and inhibitory messages from many neurons. The cannabinoids indirectly cause the release of dopamine  in the nucleus accumbens.  

Some effects of marijuana include intensification of sensory experiences, impairments of memory and cognition,  and the illusion that time has slowed down.  
 But some argue that not all effects are negative.  Advocates of legalization of marijuana argue that the Cannabis plant  is less harmful than other legalized substances such as alcohol and tobacco.  Furthermore, advocates argue that marijuana has proven to have medicinal purposes. 
Let's view some points of the debate.....

For legalization:                                                            Against legalization:
* Marijuana is no more harmful than                     * Marijuana is worse for individuals and society.
 tobacco and alcohol.                                               *Marijuana use impairs the immune system.
* Marijuana can have beneficial mind-                  * Marijuana use impairs hormone production.
altering effects if used properly.                             * Marijuana smoke is highly damaging to lungs.
*Marijuana is NOT addictive.                                 * Increase crime rates.
* Marijuana can curb psychotic
symptoms in people with
schizophrenia.

The video above mainly focuses on some factual information that claims marijuana does indeed have positive effects.

Currently, there is ongoing research to show the effects of marijuana use.
Below is a diagram of some physiological effects.

Historically, the use, sales, possession and association of marijuana was criminalized in 1951.  In 2005, the Supreme Court ruled that the federal government has jurisdiction over the legal status of marijuana.



Please feel free to comment on your opinion of the legalization of marijuana.. :)

Nerve Cells and Nerve Impulses

The B-R-A-I-N, simple word but complex in its entity.....
The brain is the center of the nervous system.. And this system lives up to its name, it makes ME very

NErVous...

So how does the nervous system work and what is it composed of???
The anatomy of the nervous system is composed of neuron cells and glia.
First, let's examine the neurons. 
Neurons receive and transmit information to other cells.
The neuron is composed of four major structures; dendrites, the soma, an axon, and presynaptic terminals. The human brain is composed of about 100 billion neurons!
                                                  
Next, let's examine the glia.
Glia was discovered in 1846 by Rudolph Virchow.
Glia perform many functions; provide support and protection to neurons, maintian homeostais, remove waste, transport of nutrients, form myelin.  Some of the types of glia include astrocytes, microglia, oliogodendrocytes, schwann cells, and radial glia.  Each type performs a specialized function.

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But there is so MUCH more to neurons and glia than  the basic functions stated above.....

 Neurons, the electrochemical messengers, are in a stage known as the "resting potential". During the resting potential, neurons have a slightly negative charge inside the cell.  The slight negative charge is obtained by the sodium-potassium pump.  The sodium-potassium pump transports three sodium ions out of the cell and draws two potassium ions inside the cell. The resting potential of a neuron is disturbed and messages are carried out.  This event is known as the action potential. Click here to see how an action potential plays out.

Introduction to PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

What is Physiological Psychology?  If the term is broken down; physiological is referring to  physiology and psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.  When referring to physiological psychology, the goal is to look at the relationship between biological processes and psychological issues. But this is an elusive goal to accomplish. This field of psychology is a complex and fascinating field of study. If you are interested in learning about how the brain works and how it effects human behavior, this may be the field to look into.
Although it seems obvious that  brain activity is the explanation for human behavior, there are different views and unanswered questions.
 David Chalmers, a philosopher, proposed a problem which still remains unanswered.  He presented the hard problem, which questions  the existence of consciousness, today this problem is known as the mind-body problem.  How does the brain create mental experiences?
Physiological psychology provides explanations to behavior in four different categories; physiological, ontogenetic, evolutionary, and functional.  Many different sub fields within psychology will provide different explanations according to the principles of the field.
Much of the explanations within physiological psychology will focus on the brain activity.  Furthermore, physiological psychology focuses on brain functioning in the microscopic level by studying neurons and glia.
Neurons, glia, neurotransmitters, nervous system, brain; ALL these terms come to mind when studying physiological psychology!! So let's find out how the brain works and why......